TerrestrialCoordinates.c

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/*
*  Copyright (C) 2007 Jolien Creighton, Reinhard Prix, Teviet Creighton, John Whelan
*
*  This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify
*  it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
*  the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 of the License, or
*  (at your option) any later version.
*
*  This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
*  but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
*  MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the
*  GNU General Public License for more details.
*
*  You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
*  along with with program; see the file COPYING. If not, write to the
*  Free Software Foundation, Inc., 51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor, Boston,
*  MA  02110-1301  USA
*/
 
 
#include <math.h>
#include <lal/LALStdlib.h>
#include <lal/LALConstants.h>
#include <lal/Date.h>
#include <lal/Sort.h>
#include <lal/SkyCoordinates.h>
#include <string.h>
 
#define LAL_EARTHFLAT (0.00335281)
#define LAL_HSERIES (0.0001) /* value H below which we expand sqrt(1+H)-1 */
#define LAL_BSERIES (0.001)  /* value B below which we expand v */
 
/**
 * \author Creighton, T. D.
 * \addtogroup TerrestrialCoordinates_c
 * \brief Converts among equatorial, geographic, and horizon coordinates.
 *
 * The functions <tt>LALEquatorialToGeographic()</tt> and
 * <tt>LALGeographicToEquatorial()</tt> convert between equatorial and
 * geographic coordinate systems, reading coordinates in the first system
 * from <tt>*input</tt> and storing the new coordinates in <tt>*output</tt>.
 * The two pointers may point to the same object, in which case the
 * conversion is done in place.  The functions will also check
 * <tt>input->system</tt> and set <tt>output->system</tt> as appropriate.
 * Because the geographic coordinate system is not fixed, one must also
 * specify the time of the transformation in <tt>*gpsTime</tt>.
 *
 * The function <tt>LALSystemToHorizon()</tt> transforms coordinates from
 * either celestial equatorial coordinates or geographic coordinates to a
 * horizon coordinate system, reading coordinates in the first system
 * from <tt>*input</tt> and storing the horizon coordinates in
 * <tt>*output</tt>, as above.  The parameter <tt>*zenith</tt> specifies the
 * direction of the vertical axis <em>in the original coordinate
 * system</em>; the routine checks to see that <tt>input->system</tt> and
 * <tt>zenith->system</tt> agree.  Normally this routine is used to convert
 * from \e geographic latitude and longitude to a horizon system, in
 * which case <tt>*zenith</tt> simply stores the geographic (geodetic)
 * coordinates of the observer; if converting from equatorial
 * coordinates, <tt>zenith->longitude</tt> should store the local mean
 * sidereal time of the horizon system.
 *
 * The function <tt>LALHorizonToSystem()</tt> does the reverse of the
 * above, transforming coordinates from horizon coordinates to either
 * equatorial or geographic coordinates as specified by
 * <tt>zenith->system</tt>; the value of <tt>output->system</tt> is set to
 * agree with <tt>zenith->system</tt>.
 *
 * Although it is conventional to specify an observation location by its
 * \e geodetic coordinates, some routines may provide or require
 * \e geocentric coordinates.  The routines
 * <tt>LALGeocentricToGeodetic()</tt> and <tt>LALGeodeticToGeocentric()</tt>
 * perform this computation, reading and writing to the variable
 * parameter structure <tt>*location</tt>.  The function
 * <tt>LALGeocentricToGeodetic()</tt> reads the fields <tt>location->x</tt>,
 * \c y, \c z, and computes <tt>location->zenith</tt> and
 * <tt>location->altitude</tt>.  The function
 * <tt>LALGeodeticToGeocentric()</tt> does the reverse, and also sets the
 * fields <tt>location->position</tt> and <tt>location->radius</tt>.
 *
 * ### Algorithm ###
 *
 * These routines follow the formulae in Sec. 5.1 of \cite Lang_K1999 ,
 * which we reproduce below.
 *
 * \par Geographic coordinates:
 * Since geographic and equatorial
 * coordinates share the same \f$z\f$-axis, the geographic latitude \f$\phi\f$ of
 * a direction in space is the same as its declination \f$\delta\f$, and
 * longitude \f$\lambda\f$ and right ascension \f$\alpha\f$ differ only through
 * the rotation of the Earth:
 * \f{equation}{
 * \label{eq_lambda_geographic}
 * \lambda = \alpha - \left(\frac{2\pi\,\mathrm{radians}}
 * {24\,\mathrm{hours}}\right)\times\mathrm{GMST} \; ,
 * \f}
 * where GMST is Greenwich mean sidereal time.  The conversion routines
 * here simply use the functions in the date package to compute
 * GMST for a given GPS time, and add it to the longitude.  While this is
 * simple enough, it does involve several function calls, so it is
 * convenient to collect these into one routine.
 *
 * \par Horizon coordinates:
 * We correct a typographical
 * error on the second line of Eq. 5.45 of \cite Lang_K1999 , (it should
 * have \f$\cos A\f$, not \f$\sin A\f$).  We also note that while our latitudinal
 * coordinate is just the altitude \f$a\f$ in this system, our longitudinal
 * coordinate increases counterclockwise, and thus corresponds to the
 * \e negative of the azimuth \f$A\f$ as defined by \cite Lang_K1999 .
 * So we have:
 * \f{eqnarray}{
 * \label{eq_altitude_horizon}
 * a & = & \arcsin(\sin\delta\sin\phi + \cos\delta\cos\phi\cos h) \; , \\
 * \label{eq_azimuth_horizon}
 * -A & = & \arctan\!2(\cos\delta\sin h, \sin\delta\cos\phi -
 * \cos\delta\sin\phi\cos h) \; ,
 * \f}
 * where \f$\delta\f$ is the declination (geographic latitude) of the
 * direction being transformed, \f$\phi\f$ is the geographic latitude of the
 * observer's zenith (i.e.\ the observer's \e geodetic latitude), and
 * \f$h\f$ is the <em>hour angle</em> of the direction being transformed.  This
 * is defined as:
 * \f{eqnarray}{
 * h & = & \lambda_\mathrm{zenith} - \lambda\\
 * & = & \mathrm{LMST} - \alpha
 * \f}
 * where LMST is the local mean sidereal time at the point of
 * observation.  The inverse transformation is:
 * \f{eqnarray}{
 * \label{eq_delta_horizon}
 * \delta & = & \arcsin(\sin a\sin\phi + \cos a\cos A\cos\phi) \; , \\
 * \label{eq_h_horizon}
 * h & = & \arctan\!2[\cos a\sin(-A), \sin a\cos\phi -
 * \cos a\cos A\sin\phi] \; .
 * \f}
 * As explained in \ref CelestialCoordinates_c, the function
 * \f$\arctan\!2(y,x)\f$ returns the argument of the complex number \f$x+iy\f$.
 *
 * \anchor inject_geodetic
 * \image html inject_geodetic.png "The difference between geodetic and geocentric latitude."
 *
 * \par Geocentric coordinates:
 * As shown in
 * \ref inject_geodetic "this figure", the ellipticity of the Earth means that the
 * vertical axis of a point on the Earth's surface does not pass through
 * the geometric centre of the Earth.  This means that the geodetic
 * latitude of a location (defined as the latitude angle
 * \f$\phi_\mathrm{geodetic}\f$ of that location's zenith direction) is
 * typically some 10 arcminutes larger than its geocentric latitude
 * (defined as the latitude angle \f$\phi_\mathrm{geographic}\f$ of the
 * position vector from the geocentre through the location).
 * Cartographers traditionally refer to locations by their geodetic
 * coordinates, since these can be determined locally; however,
 * geocentric coordinates are required if one wants to construct a
 * uniform Cartesian system for the Earth as a whole.
 *
 * To transform from geodetic to geocentric coordinates, one first
 * defines a "reference ellipsoid", the best-fit ellipsoid to the
 * surface of the Earth.  This is specified by the polar and equatorial
 * radii of the Earth \f$r_p\f$ and \f$r_e\f$, or equivalently by \f$r_e\f$ and a
 * flattening factor:
 * \f[
 * f \equiv 1 - \frac{r_p}{r_e} = 0.00335281 \; .
 * \f]
 * (This constant will eventually migrate into \ref LALConstants_h.)
 * The surface of the ellipsoid is then specified by the equation
 * \f[
 * r = r_e ( 1 - f\sin^2\phi ) \; ,
 * \f]
 * where \f$\phi=\phi_\mathrm{geodetic}\f$ is the geodetic latitude.  For
 * points off of the reference ellipsoid, the transformation from
 * geodetic coordinates \f$\lambda\f$, \f$\phi\f$ to geocentric Cartesian
 * coordinates is:
 * \f{eqnarray}{
 * x & = & ( r_e C + h ) \cos\phi\cos\lambda \; , \\
 * y & = & ( r_e C + h ) \cos\phi\sin\lambda \; , \\
 * z & = & ( r_e S + h ) \sin\phi \; ,
 * \f}
 * where
 * \f{eqnarray}{
 * C & = & \frac{1}{\sqrt{\cos^2\phi + (1-f)^2\sin^2\phi}} \; , \\
 * S & = & (1-f)^2 C \; ,
 * \f}
 * and \f$h\f$ is the perpendicular elevation of the location above the
 * reference ellipsoid.  The geocentric spherical coordinates are given
 * simply by:
 * \f{eqnarray}{
 * r & = & \sqrt{ x^2 + y^2 + z^2 } \; , \\
 * \lambda_\mathrm{geocentric} & = & \lambda \quad = \quad
 * \lambda_\mathrm{geodetic} \; , \\
 * \phi_\mathrm{geocentric} & = & \arcsin( z/r ) \; .
 * \f}
 * When computing \f$r\f$ we are careful to factor out the largest component
 * before computing the sum of squares, to avoid floating-point overflow;
 * however this should be unnecessary for radii near the surface of the
 * Earth.
 *
 * The inverse transformation is somewhat trickier.  Eq. 5.29
 * of \cite Lang_K1999 conveniently gives the transformation in terms
 * of a sequence of intermediate variables, but unfortunately these
 * variables are not particularly computer-friendly, in that they are
 * prone to underflow or overflow errors.  The following equations
 * essentially reproduce this sequence using better-behaved methods of
 * calculation.
 *
 * Given geocentric Cartesian coordinates
 * \f$x=r\cos\phi_\mathrm{geocentric}\cos\lambda\f$,
 * \f$y=r\cos\phi_\mathrm{geocentric}\sin\lambda\f$, and
 * \f$z=r\sin\phi_\mathrm{geocentric}\f$, one computes the following:
 * \f{eqnarray}{
 * \varpi & = & \sqrt{ \left(\frac{x}{r_e}\right)^2
 * + \left(\frac{y}{r_e}\right)^2 } \;,\\
 * E & = & (1-f)\left|\frac{z}{r_e}\right| - f(2-f) \;,\\
 * F & = & (1-f)\left|\frac{z}{r_e}\right| + f(2-f) \;,\\
 * P & = & \frac{4}{3}\left( EF + \varpi^2 \right) \quad = \quad
 * \frac{4}{3}\left[ \varpi^2 + (1-f)^2\left(\frac{z}{r_e}\right)^2
 * - f^2(2-f)^2 \right] \;,\\
 * Q & = & 2\varpi(F^2 - E^2) \quad = \quad
 * 8\varpi f(1-f)(2-f)\left|\frac{z}{r_e}\right| \;,\\
 * D & = & P^3 + Q^2 \;,\\
 * v & = & \left\{\begin{array}{lr}
 * \left(\sqrt{D}+Q\right)^{1/3}
 * - \left(\sqrt{D}-Q\right)^{1/3} &
 * D\geq0 \\
 * 2\sqrt{-P}\cos\left(\frac{1}{3}
 * \arccos\left[\frac{Q}{-P\sqrt{-P}}\right]\right) &
 * D\leq0 \end{array}\right.\\
 * W & = & \sqrt{E^2 + \varpi v}\\
 * G & = & \frac{1}{2}\left(E+W\right)\;,\\
 * t & = & \sqrt{G^2+\frac{\varpi^2 F - \varpi vG}{W}}-G \;.
 * \f}
 * Once we have \f$t\f$ and \f$\varpi\f$, we can compute the geodetic longitude
 * \f$\lambda\f$, latitude \f$\phi\f$, and elevation \f$h\f$:
 * \f{eqnarray}{
 * \lambda & = & \arctan\!2(y,x) \; , \\
 * \phi & = & \mathrm{sgn}({z})\arctan\left[\frac{1}{2(1-f)}
 * \left(\frac{(\varpi-t)(\varpi+t)}{\varpi t}\right)\right] \; , \\
 * h & = & r_e(\varpi-t/\varpi)\cos\phi
 * + [z-\mathrm{sgn}({z})r_e(1-f)]\sin\phi \; .
 * \f}
 *
 * \anchor inject_geodeticsing
 * \image html inject_geodeticsing.png "Singular surfaces in the geodetic coordinate system. The ellipticity of this spheroid has been exaggerated compared with the Earth."
 *
 * These formulae still leave certain areas where coordinate
 * singularities or numerical cancelations can occur.  Some of these have
 * been dealt with in the code:
 * <ul>
 * <li> There is a coordinate singularity at \f$\varpi=0\f$, which we deal
 * with by setting \f$\phi=\pm90^\circ\f$ and \f$\lambda\f$ arbitrarily to
 * \f$0^\circ\f$.  When \f$z=0\f$ as well, we arbitrarily choose the positive
 * sign for \f$\phi\f$.  As \f$\varpi\rightarrow0\f$, there are cancellations in
 * the computation of \f$G\f$ and \f$t\f$, which call for special treatment
 * (below).</li>
 *
 * <li> There is another coordinate singularity when \f$D\leq0\f$, where
 * lines of constant geodetic latitude will cross each other, as shown in
 * \ref inject_geodeticsing "this figure".  That is, a given point within this
 * region can be assigned a range of geodetic latitudes.  The
 * multi-valued region lies within an inner ellipsoid \f$P\leq0\f$, which in
 * the case of the Earth has equatorial radius \f$r_0=r_ef(2-f)=42.6977\f$km
 * and axial height \f$z_0=r_0/(1-f)=42.8413\f$km.  The formula for \f$v\f$,
 * above, has an analytic continuation to \f$D\leq0\f$, assigning consistent
 * (though not unique) values of latitute and elevation to these points.</li>
 *
 * <li> Near the equator we have \f$Q\rightarrow0\f$, and the first
 * expression for \f$v\f$ becomes a difference of nearly-equal numbers,
 * leading to loss of precision.  To deal with this, we write that
 * expression for \f$v\f$ as:
 * \f[
 * \begin{array}{rcl@{\qquad}c@{\qquad}l}
 * v &=& D^{1/6}\left[(1+B)^{1/3}-(1-B)^{1/3}\right]
 * &\mbox{where}& B \;\;=\;\; \displaystyle \frac{Q}{\sqrt{D}} \\
 * &\approx& D^{1/6}\left[\frac{2}{3}B+\frac{10}{81}B^3\right]
 * &\mbox{as}& B \;\;\rightarrow\;\;0
 * \end{array}
 * \f]
 *
 * The switch from the "exact" formula to the series expansion is done
 * for \f$B<10^{-3}\f$ (within about \f$2^\circ\f$ of the equator).  This was
 * found by experimentation to be the point where the inaccuracy of the
 * series expansion is roughly equal to the imprecision in evaluating the
 * "exact" formula.  The resulting position errors are of order 1 part
 * in \f$10^{12}\f$ or less; i.e.\ about 3--4 digits loss of precision.</li>
 *
 * <li> In some places we have expressions of the form \f$\sqrt{a^2+b}-a\f$,
 * which becomes a difference of nearly equal numbers for \f$|b|\ll a^2\f$,
 * resulting in loss of precision.  There are three distinct lines or
 * surfaces where this occurs:</li>
 * <ol>
 * <li> Near the ellipsoidal surface \f$P\approx0\f$, the expression \f$\sqrt{D}-Q\f$
 * in the equation for \f$v\f$ becomes of this form.</li>
 * <li> Near the polar axis \f$\varpi\approx0\f$, the expression for \f$t\f$
 * becomes of this form.</li>
 * <li> Near the polar axis \f$\varpi\approx0\f$ within the inner ellipsoid,
 * we have \f$E<0\f$ and the expression for \f$G\f$ becomes of this form.
 * </ol>
 * In each case, we expand in the small parameter \f$H=b/a^2\f$, giving:
 * \f[
 * \sqrt{a^2+b}-a \;\;\approx\;\; a\left(\frac{1}{2} H
 * - \frac{1}{8} H^2 + \frac{1}{16} H^3\right)
 * \qquad\mbox{for}\qquad |H| = \left|\frac{b}{a^2}\right| \ll 1
 * \f]
 *
 * We switch to the series expansion for \f$|H|<\times10^{-4}\f$, which again
 * is the point where residual errors in the series expansion are about
 * the same as the loss of precision without the expansion.  This formula
 * converges much better than the one for \f$v\f$ (above), resulting in
 * negligible loss of precision in the final position.</li>
 *
 * <li> The only remaining known numerical singularities are at the
 * poles of the inner ellipsoid, shown as red dots in
 * \ref inject_geodeticsing "this figure".  These points stubbornly resist
 * high-precision calculation.  However, they are extremely unlikely to
 * come up in practice.</li>
 * </ul>
 *
 * \par Ellipsoidal vs. orthometric elevation:
 * In this module it
 * is assumed that all elevations refer heights above the reference
 * ellipsoid.  This is the elevation computed by such techniques as GPS
 * triangulation.  However, the "true" orthometric elevation refers to
 * the height above the mean sea level or \e geoid, a level surface
 * in the Earth's gravitational potential.  Thus, even if two points have
 * the same ellipsoidal elevation, water will still flow from the higher
 * to the lower orthometric elevation.
 *
 * The difference between the geoid and reference ellipsoid is called the
 * "undulation of the geoid", and can vary by over a hundred metres
 * over the Earth's surface.  However, it can only be determined through
 * painstaking measurements of local variations in the Earth's
 * gravitational field.  For this reason we will ignore the undulation of
 * the geoid.
 *
 * ### Uses ###
 *
 * \code
 * XLALGreenwichMeanSiderealTime()
 * \endcode
 *
 */
/** @{ */
 
/** \see See documentation in \ref TerrestrialCoordinates_c */
void
LALEquatorialToGeographic( LALStatus   *stat,
                           SkyPosition *output,
                           SkyPosition *input,
                           LIGOTimeGPS *gpsTime )
{
  REAL8 gmst;            /* siderial time (radians) */
 
  INITSTATUS(stat);
 
  /* Make sure parameter structures exist. */
  ASSERT( input, stat, SKYCOORDINATESH_ENUL, SKYCOORDINATESH_MSGENUL );
  ASSERT( output, stat, SKYCOORDINATESH_ENUL, SKYCOORDINATESH_MSGENUL );
  ASSERT( gpsTime, stat, SKYCOORDINATESH_ENUL, SKYCOORDINATESH_MSGENUL );
 
  /* Make sure we're given the right coordinate system. */
  if ( input->system != COORDINATESYSTEM_EQUATORIAL ) {
    ABORT( stat, SKYCOORDINATESH_ESYS, SKYCOORDINATESH_MSGESYS );
  }
 
  /* Compute the Greenwich mean sidereal time. */
  gmst = fmod( XLALGreenwichMeanSiderealTime( gpsTime ), LAL_TWOPI );
 
  /* Add to longitude, and exit. */
  output->system = COORDINATESYSTEM_GEOGRAPHIC;
  output->longitude = fmod( input->longitude - gmst, LAL_TWOPI );
  if ( output->longitude < 0.0 )
    output->longitude += LAL_TWOPI;
  output->latitude = input->latitude;
  RETURN( stat );
}
 
 
/** \see See documentation in \ref TerrestrialCoordinates_c */
void
LALGeographicToEquatorial( LALStatus   *stat,
                           SkyPosition *output,
                           SkyPosition *input,
                           LIGOTimeGPS *gpsTime )
{
  REAL8 gmst;            /* siderial time (radians) */
 
  INITSTATUS(stat);
 
  /* Make sure parameter structures exist. */
  ASSERT( input, stat, SKYCOORDINATESH_ENUL, SKYCOORDINATESH_MSGENUL );
  ASSERT( output, stat, SKYCOORDINATESH_ENUL, SKYCOORDINATESH_MSGENUL );
  ASSERT( gpsTime, stat, SKYCOORDINATESH_ENUL, SKYCOORDINATESH_MSGENUL );
 
  /* Make sure we're given the right coordinate system. */
  if ( input->system != COORDINATESYSTEM_GEOGRAPHIC ) {
    ABORT( stat, SKYCOORDINATESH_ESYS, SKYCOORDINATESH_MSGESYS );
  }
 
  /* Compute the Greenwich mean sidereal time. */
  gmst = fmod( XLALGreenwichMeanSiderealTime( gpsTime ), LAL_TWOPI );
 
  /* Subtract from longitude, and exit. */
  output->system = COORDINATESYSTEM_EQUATORIAL;
  output->longitude = fmod( input->longitude + gmst, LAL_TWOPI );
  if ( output->longitude < 0.0 )
    output->longitude += LAL_TWOPI;
  output->latitude = input->latitude;
  RETURN( stat );
}
 
 
/** \see See documentation in \ref TerrestrialCoordinates_c */
void
LALSystemToHorizon( LALStatus   *stat,
                    SkyPosition *output,
                    SkyPosition *input,
                    const SkyPosition *zenith )
{
  REAL8 h, sinH, cosH; /* hour angle, and its sine and cosine */
  REAL8 sinP, cosP;    /* sin and cos of zenith latitude */
  REAL8 sinD, cosD;    /* sin and cos of position latitude (declination) */
  REAL8 sina, sinA, cosA; /* sin and cos of altitude and -azimuth */
 
  INITSTATUS(stat);
 
  /* Make sure parameter structures exist. */
  ASSERT( input, stat, SKYCOORDINATESH_ENUL, SKYCOORDINATESH_MSGENUL );
  ASSERT( output, stat, SKYCOORDINATESH_ENUL, SKYCOORDINATESH_MSGENUL );
  ASSERT( zenith, stat, SKYCOORDINATESH_ENUL, SKYCOORDINATESH_MSGENUL );
 
  /* Make sure we have consistent input coordinate systems. */
  if ( input->system != zenith->system ) {
    ABORT( stat, SKYCOORDINATESH_ESYS, SKYCOORDINATESH_MSGESYS );
  }
  if ( ( zenith->system != COORDINATESYSTEM_EQUATORIAL ) &&
       ( zenith->system != COORDINATESYSTEM_GEOGRAPHIC ) ) {
    ABORT( stat, SKYCOORDINATESH_ESYS, SKYCOORDINATESH_MSGESYS );
  }
 
  /* Compute intermediates. */
  h = zenith->longitude - input->longitude;
  sinH = sin( h );
  cosH = cos( h );
  sinP = sin( zenith->latitude );
  cosP = cos( zenith->latitude );
  sinD = sin( input->latitude );
  cosD = cos( input->latitude );
 
  /* Compute components. */
  sina = sinD*sinP + cosD*cosP*cosH;
  sinA = cosD*sinH;
  cosA = sinD*cosP - cosD*sinP*cosH;
 
  /* Compute final results. */
  output->system = COORDINATESYSTEM_HORIZON;
  output->latitude = asin( sina );
  output->longitude = atan2( sinA, cosA );
 
  /* Optional phase correction. */
  if ( output->longitude < 0.0 )
    output->longitude += LAL_TWOPI;
 
  RETURN( stat );
}
 
 
/** \see See documentation in \ref TerrestrialCoordinates_c */
void
LALHorizonToSystem( LALStatus   *stat,
                    SkyPosition *output,
                    SkyPosition *input,
                    const SkyPosition *zenith )
{
  REAL8 sinP, cosP;       /* sin and cos of zenith latitude */
  REAL8 sina, cosa;       /* sin and cos of altitude */
  REAL8 sinA, cosA;       /* sin and cos of -azimuth */
  REAL8 sinD, sinH, cosH; /* sin and cos of declination and hour angle */
 
  INITSTATUS(stat);
 
  /* Make sure parameter structures exist. */
  ASSERT( input, stat, SKYCOORDINATESH_ENUL, SKYCOORDINATESH_MSGENUL );
  ASSERT( output, stat, SKYCOORDINATESH_ENUL, SKYCOORDINATESH_MSGENUL );
  ASSERT( zenith, stat, SKYCOORDINATESH_ENUL, SKYCOORDINATESH_MSGENUL );
 
  /* Make sure we're given the right coordinate system. */
  if ( input->system != COORDINATESYSTEM_HORIZON ) {
    ABORT( stat, SKYCOORDINATESH_ESYS, SKYCOORDINATESH_MSGESYS );
  }
  if ( ( zenith->system != COORDINATESYSTEM_EQUATORIAL ) &&
       ( zenith->system != COORDINATESYSTEM_GEOGRAPHIC ) ) {
    ABORT( stat, SKYCOORDINATESH_ESYS, SKYCOORDINATESH_MSGESYS );
  }
 
  /* Compute intermediates. */
  sinP = sin( zenith->latitude );
  cosP = cos( zenith->latitude );
  sina = sin( input->latitude );
  cosa = cos( input->latitude );
  sinA = sin( input->longitude );
  cosA = cos( input->longitude );
 
  /* Compute components. */
  sinD = sina*sinP + cosa*cosA*cosP;
  sinH = cosa*sinA;
  cosH = sina*cosP - cosa*cosA*sinP;
 
  /* Compute final results. */
  output->system = zenith->system;
  output->latitude = asin( sinD );
  output->longitude = zenith->longitude - atan2( sinH, cosH );
 
  /* Optional phase correction. */
  if ( output->longitude < 0.0 )
    output->longitude += LAL_TWOPI;
 
  RETURN( stat );
}
 
 
/** \see See documentation in \ref TerrestrialCoordinates_c */
void
LALGeodeticToGeocentric( LALStatus *stat, EarthPosition *location )
{
  REAL8 c, s; /* position components in and orthogonal to the equator */
  REAL8 cosP, sinP; /* cosine and sine of latitude */
  REAL8 fFac;       /* ( 1 - f )^2 */
  REAL8 x, y;       /* Cartesian coordinates */
  REAL8 maxComp, r; /* max{x,y,z}, and sqrt(x^2+y^2+z^2) */
 
  INITSTATUS(stat);
 
  /* Make sure parameter structure exists. */
  ASSERT( location, stat, SKYCOORDINATESH_ENUL, SKYCOORDINATESH_MSGENUL );
 
  /* Make sure the geodetic coordinates are in the right system. */
  if ( location->geodetic.system != COORDINATESYSTEM_GEOGRAPHIC ) {
    ABORT( stat, SKYCOORDINATESH_ESYS, SKYCOORDINATESH_MSGESYS );
  }
 
  /* Compute intermediates. */
  fFac = 1.0 - LAL_EARTHFLAT;
  fFac *= fFac;
  cosP = cos( location->geodetic.latitude );
  sinP = sin( location->geodetic.latitude );
  c = sqrt( 1.0 / ( cosP*cosP + fFac*sinP*sinP ) );
  s = fFac*c;
  c = ( LAL_REARTH_SI*c + location->elevation )*cosP;
  s = ( LAL_REARTH_SI*s + location->elevation )*sinP;
 
  /* Compute Cartesian coordinates. */
  location->x = x = c*cos( location->geodetic.longitude );
  location->y = y = c*sin( location->geodetic.longitude );
  location->z = s;
 
  /* Compute the radius. */
  maxComp = x;
  if ( y > maxComp )
    maxComp = y;
  if ( s > maxComp )
    maxComp = s;
  x /= maxComp;
  y /= maxComp;
  s /= maxComp;
  r = sqrt( x*x + y*y + s*s );
 
  /* Compute the spherical coordinates, and exit. */
  location->radius = maxComp*r;
  location->geocentric.longitude = location->geodetic.longitude;
  location->geocentric.latitude = asin( s / r );
  location->geocentric.system = COORDINATESYSTEM_GEOGRAPHIC;
  RETURN( stat );
}
 
 
/** \see See documentation in \ref TerrestrialCoordinates_c */
void
LALGeocentricToGeodetic( LALStatus *stat, EarthPosition *location )
{
  REAL8 x, y, z;   /* normalized geocentric coordinates */
  REAL8 pi;        /* axial distance */
 
  /* Declare some local constants. */
  const REAL8 rInv = 1.0 / LAL_REARTH_SI;
  const REAL8 f1 = 1.0 - LAL_EARTHFLAT;
  const REAL8 f2 = LAL_EARTHFLAT*( 2.0 - LAL_EARTHFLAT );
 
  INITSTATUS(stat);
 
  /* Make sure parameter structure exists. */
  ASSERT( location, stat, SKYCOORDINATESH_ENUL, SKYCOORDINATESH_MSGENUL );
 
  /* See if we've been given a special set of coordinates. */
  x = rInv*location->x;
  y = rInv*location->y;
  z = rInv*location->z;
  pi = sqrt( x*x + y*y );
  location->geodetic.system = COORDINATESYSTEM_GEOGRAPHIC;
  location->geodetic.longitude = atan2( y, x );
  location->radius = LAL_REARTH_SI*sqrt( x*x + y*y + z*z );
  if ( pi == 0.0 ) {
    if ( z >= 0.0 ) {
      location->geodetic.latitude = LAL_PI_2;
      location->elevation = z - f1;
    } else {
      location->geodetic.latitude = -LAL_PI_2;
      location->elevation = -z - f1;
    }
    location->elevation *= LAL_REARTH_SI;
  }
 
  /* Do the general transformation even if z=0. */
  else {
    REAL8 za, e, f, p, p3, q, q2, d, d2, b, v, w, g, h, gh, t, phi, tanP;
    /* intermediate variables */
 
    /* See if we're inside the singular ellipsoid.
    if ( pi <= 1.01*f2 ) {
      REAL8 z1 = z*f1/f2;
      REAL8 p1 = pi/f2;
      if ( z1*z1 + p1*p1 < 1.02 ) {
        ABORT( stat, SKYCOORDINATESH_ESING, SKYCOORDINATESH_MSGESING );
      }
    } */
 
    /* Compute intermediates variables. */
    za = f1*fabs( z );
    e = za - f2;
    f = za + f2;
    p = ( 4.0/3.0 )*( pi*pi + za*za - f2*f2 );
    p3 = p*p*p;
    q = 8.0*pi*f2*za;
    q2 = q*q;
    h = p3/q2;
    d = p3 + q2;
 
    /* Compute v, using series expansion if necessary. */
    if ( d >= 0.0 ) {
      d2 = sqrt( d );
      b = q/d2;
      if ( fabs( h ) < LAL_HSERIES ) {
        if ( h < 0.0 )
          v = pow( d2 + q, 1.0/3.0 )
            + pow( -0.5*q*h*( 1.0 - 0.25*h*( 1.0 - 0.5*h ) ), 1.0/3.0 );
        else
          v = pow( d2 + q, 1.0/3.0 )
            - pow( 0.5*q*h*( 1.0 - 0.25*h*( 1.0 - 0.5*h ) ), 1.0/3.0 );
      } else if ( b < LAL_BSERIES ) {
        v = pow( d2, 1.0/3.0 )*( b*( 2.0/3.0 + b*b*10.0/81.0 ) );
      } else if ( b < 1.0 ) {
        v = pow( d2, 1.0/3.0 )*( pow( 1.0 + b, 1.0/3.0 ) -
                                 pow( 1.0 - b, 1.0/3.0 ) );
      } else {
        v = pow( d2, 1.0/3.0 )*( pow( b + 1.0, 1.0/3.0 ) +
                                 pow( b - 1.0, 1.0/3.0 ) );
      }
    } else {
      v = 2.0*sqrt( -p )*cos( acos( q/( -p*sqrt( -p ) ) )/3.0 );
    }
 
    /* Compute t, using series expansion if necessary. */
    h = v*pi/( e*e );
    w = fabs( e )*sqrt( 1.0 + h );
    if ( e > 0.0 || h > LAL_HSERIES )
      g = 0.5*( e + w );
    else
      g = -0.25*e*h*( 1.0 - 0.25*h*( 1.0 - 0.5*h ) );
    gh = fabs( pi*( f*pi - v*g )/w );
    h = gh/( g*g );
    if ( fabs( h ) > LAL_HSERIES )
      t = g*( sqrt( 1.0 + h ) - 1.0 );
    else
      t = 0.5*g*h*( 1.0 - 0.25*h*( 1.0 - 0.5*h ) );
 
    /* Compute latitude, longitude, and elevation. */
    tanP = ( pi - t )*( pi + t )/( 2.0*f1*pi*t );
    phi = atan( tanP );
    location->geodetic.latitude = phi;
    if ( z < 0.0 )
      location->geodetic.latitude *= -1.0;
    location->elevation = ( pi - t/pi )*cos( phi );
    location->elevation += ( fabs( z ) - f1 )*sin( phi );
    location->elevation *= LAL_REARTH_SI;
  }
 
  /* Transformation complete. */
  RETURN( stat );
}
/** @} */